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Oath of loyalty refused 1931: University professors and the fascist regime
Before the birth of the Italian State (1861) university professors were considered normal state employees (in the various pre-unification states)The oath of loyalty to fascism was an act of formal adherence to the fascist regime, requested in 1931 from the professors of Italian universities.
After October 28, 1922, the day of the march on Rome, Mussolini became the new prime minister with the complicity of King Vittorio Emanuele III.
Already in 1923, the tenured professors, before assuming office, should, under penalty of forfeiture, take an oath.
The reform of public education came into force (Gentile Reform) and with it the oath according to the formula: "I swear to be loyal to the King and his royal successors, to loyally observe the statute and other laws of the state, to exercise the teaching office and fulfilling all academic duties with the aim of forming hard-working, honest and devote citizen to the homeland.” No professor turned out to have refused the oath.
In 1925 a manifesto appeared of intellectuals opposed to fascism, written by Giovanni Salvemini and Benedetto Croce, with many adhesions.
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In the meantime the fascist regime consolidated and considered it a priority to control dissent and every corner of society.The new Education Minister Balbino Giuliano reformulates the oath that takes effect October 8, 1931.
https://www.google.com/search?q=gazzetta+ufficiale+8+ottobre+1931&rlz=1C1GCEA_enIT811IT811&oq=gazzetta+ufficiale+8+ottobre+1931&aqs=chrome..69i57.20250j0j7&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8
Out of 1225 university professors only 12 refused the oath. The right-wing press, in the form of derision, pointed out that less than 1% did not subscribe to the new formulation"Full-time professors and professors are responsible in the higher education institutions for taking the oath according to the following formula:
“I swear to be loyal to the King, to his royal successors and to the Fascist regime, to loyally observe the Statute and other laws of the State, to exercise the teaching office and to fulfill your academic duties with the aim of forming hard-working, honest citizens who owe my country and the Fascist Regime. I swear that I do not belong or belong to associations or parties, whose activity is not reconciled with the duties of my office. "
According to "The Fascist Oath and Academic Liberty", at the end of the year on 1225 docen soopos the obligation, 1132 had sworn, 12 had certainly refused and 81 had not (yet) given an answer. (The Economist [London, England] 26 Dec. 1931: 1227. The Economist Historical Archive, 1843-2012)
The economist Pietro Sfraffa, who was teaching at Cambridge, resigned on 1 November 1931. Still in 1931 Giuseppe Antonio Borgese moved to Berkeley University. Giovanni Salvemini, after having fled to France in 1929, was sent to teach history at Harvard University. Max Ascoli in 1931, having obtained a scholarship from the Rockefeller Foundation, moved to the United States, obtaining his citizenship in 1939. Ascoli teaches political science in New York at the New School for Social Research, also becoming headmaster of the Graduate School, from 1939 to 1941.
Max Ascoli with Gaetano Salvemini founded the Mazzini Society in 1939, which in the years of the Second World War will bring together the Italian exiles of liberal and republican tendencies that oppose the fascist regime.
The names of the 12 professors who refused the oath:
Ernesto Buonaiuti,
Mario Carrara,
Gaetano De Sanctis,
Giorgio Errera,
Giorgio Levi Della Vita,
Fabio Luzzatto,
Piero Martinetti,
Bartolo Nigrisoli,
Francesco and Edoardo Ruffini,
Lionello Venturi
Oath of loyalty refused 1931: University professors and the fascist regime
Before the birth of the Italian State (1861) university professors were considered normal state employees (in the various pre-unification states)The oath of loyalty to fascism was an act of formal adherence to the fascist regime, requested in 1931 from the professors of Italian universities.
After October 28, 1922, the day of the march on Rome, Mussolini became the new prime minister with the complicity of King Vittorio Emanuele III.
Already in 1923, the tenured professors, before assuming office, should, under penalty of forfeiture, take an oath.
The reform of public education came into force (Gentile Reform) and with it the oath according to the formula: "I swear to be loyal to the King and his royal successors, to loyally observe the statute and other laws of the state, to exercise the teaching office and fulfilling all academic duties with the aim of forming hard-working, honest and devote citizen to the homeland.” No professor turned out to have refused the oath.
In 1925 a manifesto appeared of intellectuals opposed to fascism, written by Giovanni Salvemini and Benedetto Croce, with many adhesions.
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| GAETANO SALMEMINI |
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| BENEDETTO CROCE |
.
In the meantime the fascist regime consolidated and considered it a priority to control dissent and every corner of society.The new Education Minister Balbino Giuliano reformulates the oath that takes effect October 8, 1931.
https://www.google.com/search?q=gazzetta+ufficiale+8+ottobre+1931&rlz=1C1GCEA_enIT811IT811&oq=gazzetta+ufficiale+8+ottobre+1931&aqs=chrome..69i57.20250j0j7&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8
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| GENTILE |
Out of 1225 university professors only 12 refused the oath. The right-wing press, in the form of derision, pointed out that less than 1% did not subscribe to the new formulation"Full-time professors and professors are responsible in the higher education institutions for taking the oath according to the following formula:
“I swear to be loyal to the King, to his royal successors and to the Fascist regime, to loyally observe the Statute and other laws of the State, to exercise the teaching office and to fulfill your academic duties with the aim of forming hard-working, honest citizens who owe my country and the Fascist Regime. I swear that I do not belong or belong to associations or parties, whose activity is not reconciled with the duties of my office. "
According to "The Fascist Oath and Academic Liberty", at the end of the year on 1225 docen soopos the obligation, 1132 had sworn, 12 had certainly refused and 81 had not (yet) given an answer. (The Economist [London, England] 26 Dec. 1931: 1227. The Economist Historical Archive, 1843-2012)
The economist Pietro Sfraffa, who was teaching at Cambridge, resigned on 1 November 1931. Still in 1931 Giuseppe Antonio Borgese moved to Berkeley University. Giovanni Salvemini, after having fled to France in 1929, was sent to teach history at Harvard University. Max Ascoli in 1931, having obtained a scholarship from the Rockefeller Foundation, moved to the United States, obtaining his citizenship in 1939. Ascoli teaches political science in New York at the New School for Social Research, also becoming headmaster of the Graduate School, from 1939 to 1941.
Max Ascoli with Gaetano Salvemini founded the Mazzini Society in 1939, which in the years of the Second World War will bring together the Italian exiles of liberal and republican tendencies that oppose the fascist regime.
The names of the 12 professors who refused the oath:
Ernesto Buonaiuti,
Mario Carrara,
Gaetano De Sanctis,
Giorgio Errera,
Giorgio Levi Della Vita,
Fabio Luzzatto,
Piero Martinetti,
Bartolo Nigrisoli,
Francesco and Edoardo Ruffini,
Lionello Venturi
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| The original version of the Magna Carta was written in 1215. | It was written in medieval Latin on animal skin. |